Violent Video Games Cause Increased Violence Essay

â€Å"The obvious objective of video games is to entertain people by surprising them with new experiences.† (Shigeru Miyamoto) Shigeru Miyamoto is the creator of some of gaming’s most iconic video game characters, Mario Jumpman Mario, Link and Donkey Kong; while also, serving as co-Representative Director of the game company, Nintendo and is highly respected. Miyamoto, based on the quote provided, feels that video games are meant to entertain people and nothing more. However, many people feel as though video games only cause problems in their families and society, epically violent video games. People feel as though violent video games negatively affect children; however, after researching the topic, I do not believe this to be the case. In my†¦show more content†¦One final point that people tend to point to when discussing this topic is that, mass shootings have been carried out by people who have been playing violent video games since they were children. This is a fantastic point that I will be counterarguing later in my essay. Next, I will be discussing the points from the side that believes violent video games do not lead to increased violence in children. For many people in this group, they have been playing video games since they were children. They feel as though since a great amount of them are not violent, then violent video games cannot lead to violence; while, this does not apply to everyone, I feel it is important to state. The main point that many on this group relay on is scientific studies that have been done. While I have stated that the number of studies are the same for both groups, it is important to state that studies that show they do not have been conducted in the past few years and are more up to date. The next point this side sticks to is that children can recognize the difference between violence in video games and violence in real life. Once the child has put down the controller and is out in the real world, they do not believe that it is okay to commit violence in any form. I will now begin to discuss my first main point. First, I will discuss studies that have shown that violent video games do not lead to increased violence in children. For this I have found a study thatShow MoreRelatedVideo Games Do Not Cause Violent Behavior855 Words   |  4 PagesVideo games do not cause violent behavior The advancement of technology in the contemporary word has increased the use of video games by children, teenagers and young adults. The video games have existed for almost three decades and the controversy of their causing violent behavior spans the same period (Porter and Starcevic,422). The release of Death Race game in 1970s initiated a debate with organizations, governments officials and other institution taking sides in the argument of whether violentRead MoreThe Effects of Violent Video Games Essay1685 Words   |  7 Pages Since violent video games, like Mortal Kombat, were created, adolescents who play these games become more aggressive than before. To me, playing violent video games is unsafe for these people since they have the negative influence on these people. I believe that researching on that topic would help us get the sense of what problems to avoid. I wish to know what are the possible effects of violent video games on adolescents’ aggression. The indep endent variable is violent video games, and theRead MoreDo Violent Video Games Cause Aggressive Behavior?1128 Words   |  5 PagesAmanda Cummings Essay Lesson II Do Violent Video Games Cause Aggressive Behavior? How and why does mass media influence aggressive behavior? More specifically, does playing video games cause aggressive behavior? Because children and teenagers spend an increased amount of time each day viewing/playing video games, they are shaping their values, attitudes, and behaviors. For people who do act out aggressively, the results can be deadly. Monthly, the news is filled with blood-chillingRead MoreAffect of Violent Video Games on Children Essays1648 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction In recent decades, attention has been placed on the influence of violent videogames on the aggressive behaviour of individuals. While some scholars believe that videogames increase aggression amongst children in particular, others claim evidence on the catharsis hypothesis where videogames are argued to be a safe outlet to express aggression (Berger 2002). Although many theories have emerged regarding the influence of violent videogames, the debate continues to be divided between those who claimRead MoreEng 1011630 Words   |  7 PagesViolence in Music Videos and Music Lyrics has a negative impact on children. Music videos that expose profanity and sexuality are inappropriate and leave a negative impression on young children. Violence in music videos can cause health problem. Music videos that promote negative lyrics are affecting young children. Music lyrics with vulgar languages affect the development and well-being of young children. For example, the study author (Stone, 2009) found â€Å"that music with explicit referencesRead MorePros And Cons Of Violent Video Games1148 Words   |  5 PagesPosition/Argumentative Essay Should teens be able to buy violent video games? No, teens should not be able to purchase video games that contain violent content. Violent video games in a person’s early years could result in much, much worse things later on in life. Studies show that violent video games could result in bullying, criminal activity, or in worse cases, suicide. Games that withhold violent scenes can result in bullying. Children will see what they are doing in their game, and think that itRead MoreAre Video Games Bad for You? Essay1702 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction In recent decades, attention has been placed on the influence of violent videogames on the aggressive behaviour of individuals. While some scholars believe that videogames increase aggression amongst children in particular, others claim evidence on the catharsis hypothesis where videogames are argued to be a safe outlet to express aggression (Berger 2002). Although many theories have emerged regarding the influence of violent videogames, the debate continues to be divided between those who claimRead MoreThe Effects Of Video Games On Children1654 Words   |  7 PagesOn average, children under eighteen play about seven hours of video games every day. Two of the three top-selling video games in 2007 were Halo and Grand Theft Auto. These are both games whose descriptions include the words â€Å"blood,† â€Å"gore,† and â€Å"violence.† The violence in these games and the actions that the players take part in may be a harmful influence to the children and teenagers who play them. While playing video games, the players do not even realize that their emotions are flaring and thatRead MoreVideo Games : Improving Critical Life Skills1587 Words   |  7 PagesMandley-Stilwell December 1, 2016 How Video Games are Bolstering Critical Life Skills in Children In 1972 Magnavox Odyssey and Atari developed and released what has come to be understood as the first video game titled, Pong. A simple tennis game where the goal is simply to keep the ball within the bounds of the screen. Since then, video games have flourished into a diverse industry varying in several genres. It has become an industry where companies work to develop a game as a form of art, or simply anRead MoreViolent Video Games Should Be Banned Essay1432 Words   |  6 Pagesof violent video game become more and more advanced. The effects of media violence on video games has been increasing in people’s daily life. It is still be an issue and have a lot of debate on whether or not violent video games should be banned. In this essay, violent video games can be defined by RWJF Blog Team as those video game which represent violence as the best or only way to resolve conflict.( Pioneering ideas 2010). This essay will discussed by two reasons for violent video game

George Whitefield s The Great Awakening - 1401 Words

George Whitefield is an individual like no other. He’s an individual who made a mark on history. He was an average person who lived to make a major difference and would be one of the most well known individuals to take part in the Evangelical Awakening of the 1700s. It was a time when you saw God’s hand in the world like never before. When looking back in history, specifically Christian history, we would say that George Whitefield truly made his mark on history during the evangelical awakening. He was one of the biggest proponents in spreading the word of God, and he was not to go unnoticed. However, how much do we really know about such an important historic event? The Great Awakening is known as a religious revival that swept across the†¦show more content†¦Many of these individuals had been baptized as infants, but chose to be baptized again as believing adults. (www.anabaptists.org) Preachers of this unstable ideology of Anabaptism were taking refuge in the Lutheran town of Mà ¼nster. Among those hiding out were the disciples of Melchior Hoffman. He was a new prophet who had new knowledge of influence after his recent conversion to the Anabaptist movement. He had begun to teach his followers to recognize the signs that would precede the golden age of heaven fifteen centuries after the crucifixion. It didn’t take long for these ideas to become a â€Å"massive obsession† in the town of Mà ¼nster. Lutherans and Catholics alike worked hard to teach over him. He was soon arrested due to his revolutionary preaching. In the early sixteenth century, scholars were studying the millennial expectations of the ancient worlds that had become such a radical component for the central institutions of Christendom. Advocates of this new millennial belief appeared after the completion of the New Testament. They argued diverse assumptions of this revolution, but found common roots in Revelation 20:1-10, which states that those who died for defending Jesus would sit at God’s right-hand with the power to judge and Satan would be released from his prison and thrown into a fiery lake of burning sulfur where he would be tormented. When it came to this new movement, by the

Northern Perspectives Free Essays

It is prudent at this juncture to define the northern territory as a way of introduction. The northern territory (NT) is much of a political territory, which shares geographical location with north Australia. This is the main distinctive feature. We will write a custom essay sample on Northern Perspectives or any similar topic only for you Order Now However there are several differences In terms of the social and cultural orientation within the geographical region of north Australia. The northern territory exists as a self-government territory. However the territory derives its right to govern from the federal parliament. This means that the supreme authority is still the federal parliament. If follows that the decision reached at the northern territory legislative assembly is subject to the approval of the federal parliament. This happens to be what separates the self-governing territory of the Northern Territory from the rest of Australia. The political structure in the larger Australia is such that the states are sovereign and only come together under the federal government. The northern territory self-government act of 1978 gave a new status to the northern territory. In this act the northern territory was granted authority that could help it become a self-autonomous entity, usurping a few roles from the commonwealth. A few of responsibilities and duties initially carried out by the common wealth were transferred to the northern territory. A superficial glance at the territory and comparison with the other states indicates almost a complete similarity. However, the territory suits a shoulder below the rest in terms of authority and the structure of the government. It leaves more towards being a self-autonomous territory as opposed to the usual states in the common wealth. Although all the states in the common wealth are independent and value sovereignty, the 1978 act to self-given presents the biggest difference between these and the northern territory. The government in northern territory can make and enforce its own laws, but should the federal government wish to overturn or override it, it can achieve this through the parliament. An example in point is the euthanasia legislation passed by northern treaty but overridden by the national parliament (). In the place of a governor, the northern territory has administrator who wields executives’ power. He leads with the help of an executive council. The territory too has its representative in the federal legislature comprising of two representatives and two people in the senate. The territory has a legislative assembly consisting of members that are elected to speaker and the member of the executive council or the ministers. The northern territory also has local governments and authorities with some full administrative powers in Darwin, the capital city as well as in other large towns, these administrative centers provide essential services to the people ranging from housing to health among others.  Northern territories have a fully-fledged legal system with the Supreme Court as the highest court in the land. There is a chief minister who leads the self-autonomous government while the premier leads the state government. These two are appointed by the administrator who in turn is appointed by the governor-general of Australia.  In the national scene, the parliament is made up of the senate and the house of representative it deals with matters affecting almost all the states like foreign affair or the issue of protecting the nation as is the case in the United States. The territory’s representation in these two organs is a bit lower to make up for special status that it enjoys with an autonomous government. Broad responsibility The northern territory government is charged with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the territory save for those that are national in nature like the world heritage areas and national parks located within the territory (Strelein L (2000). This is done to avoid conflicts between the two levels of government. Areas that fall within the northern territory government share of responsibility include but not limited to; education, health, and issues, administrative matters, infrastructure and local government. In order to perform these duties the NT government receives funds from the federal government. Relationship with federal government It is clear that the two levels of government are mutually dependent. The federal government looks up to the territorial government to facilitate the implementation of laws and policies. Additionally the federal government expects to receive money remitted by the territorial government in order to reach its own objectives. On the other hand, the territorial government receives funds from the federal government to meet its budgetary obligations. This has for long time been a subject of much debate and controversy not only in the northern territory but also elsewhere in Australia and also in the world. The federal government in Australia has to perform a balancing act in order to achieve some kind of equity. Equitable distribution of resources is a thorny issue here. This balance is important for stability of any nation. An example of inequality is between the State of California in the US and the Mississippi between which a huge economic disparity exists. There has existed a general discontent especially from richer states in the way the national government distributes money contributed by these states. One of the important areas of development that lie within the responsibility of the NT government is cultural development. Culture is a very important composite of any society. However, in the modern world, rarely would any society share in all aspects of a common culture. According to Martin C (1995), this is mainly because of the historical backgrounds that are as varied as the trends of the modern lifestyle. It is therefore important to understand the basics of cultural dynamics before any form of cultural development can be contemplated. Cultural development can be defined as the process through which the full potential of cultural diversity can be achieved for the common good. Culture is a most valuable symbol of identity and should not be lost either through assimilation or neglect. Cultural diversity brings out the uniqueness of the northern territory community (CUC107 Northern Perspectives. Cultural expansion and change (2007). One of the unique characteristics of the responsibility that the territorial government has in conserving and developing cultural diversity springs from the history of the people of the Northern Territory. The earliest inhabitants of the northern territory were the indigenous people. These people had and still have a rich culture and customs by which they lived. However, when the European immigrants settled in Australia, they sought to undermine this culture terming it as backwards. They also sought to force their own ways, which they viewed as superior. For many years this opinion has dictated the nature of interaction between the indigenous people and the settlers. It has also influenced public opinion as well as dominant ideologies (Eckerman T. et al 1992). Upon this background, the territorial government must work to alter this perception and opinion that is based against the culture and custom of the aboriginal people as well as the Torres-strait islander people. The long enduring opinion is narrow and ill informed. It is full assumptions and biases that view some cultures and practices as more superior than others. Cultural development begins with the understanding of the uniqueness of the self. It is the responsibility of the Northern Territory government to promote understanding, acceptance interest and most of all harmonious existence among people of different cultural affiliations. The goal should be for the entire population to appreciate other cultures and to nurture rather than to kill diversity. The goal should also be to create a strong sense of belonging through culture where the population is proud of being who they are. Killing cultural diversity is tantamount to killing own individual identity. The study of culture has somehow increased awareness among those who take time to give thought to the wisdom those studies. However the world is still at a point where the western definition of what is superior and what is mediocre is widely embraced. Against this background many cultures have lost invaluable parts that were part of the whole thus becoming diluted (Hunter, E. (1993). This presents the main challenge to the Northern Territory government in its management and development of culture. The Northern Territory government must work from a seemingly â€Å"point of weakness† because many of the cultural practice and customs have lost so much already which cannot be recovered. Elements of culture such as language have also changed greatly. The way people talked as well as the content of these talks has changed overtime. Among the indigenous people for instance, folk tales were used to impart knowledge as well as to pass traditions from one generation to next. However folk tales have today found replacement in technology and the consequences are a lost method of passing culture to generations (CUC107 Northern Perspectives. Cultural expansion and change (2007). These are among the challenges that the Northern Territory government faces. Capitalistic ideologies and economic power has placed some countries at a position where they can dictate the direction the rest of the world takes. This includes dominating cultures. The disadvantaged, minorities and marginalized population have little choice but to tow the line appropriately (Alder, C. 1999). Economic development in the Northern Territory, which ironically must be encouraged, can only serve to diminish any gains on the cultural diversity front. This is a challenge to the Northern Territory government cultural development plans. It is easy to see here that the sacrifices that must be made are economic prosperity or the conservation of culture. With the world being the way it is today the Northern Territory government is hard pressed to make a decision to promote economic prosperity at the expense of culture. The Northern Territory government can however produce a win-win situation, by embracing innovative thinking to ensure sustainable development both economically and culturally. It is unfortunate that despite the fact that an opportunity clearly exists in the northern territory to develop ways of achieving sustainable cultural development, not much good seems be coming out of the processes. This can be attributed to the fact that the focus of the main stakeholders is wrong. The Northern Territory government has loudly cited scarcity of funds as the main obstacle in achievement of sustainable cultural development. This has denied these stakeholders from seeing the other methods and avenues open to them to exploit the opportunity (Ames, R et al 1989). The Northern Territory government has tried to develop a framework upon which to build its plans. One has been the involvement of women and the aboriginal people in decision-making process. Their representation has however not always adequate which has worked against this plan. The NT government has also sought to promote culture by supporting cultural activities like road shows and festivals especially in Darwin. These attractions have served to showcase some of the diverse cultures that exist in Northern Territory. The events are increasingly becoming popular though at a very slow pace.  The budget for cultural development has also been increasing steadily over the past few years (Christie, M. 2000). While the efforts of the NT government to involve the local communities especially the aboriginal and Torres-strait islander people together with women and other minority groups are laudable. This paper suggests that more can be done in order to speed up the process and consolidate gains achieved so far. Wide consultations have a way of fostering ownership. It is therefore important that the NT government seek to improve participation of the local communities in decision-making. Representation should be increased in the decision-making organ. Additionally, in order to increase coercion the NT government should develop a holistic approach that includes educating the people at all levels of the society to appreciate their cultures as well as other cultures within this society. This can be done formally in small community groups as well as through other contemporary media. Another laudable gesture that should be developed further is use of cultural events and festivals. Cultural events have succeeded elsewhere as tourist attraction and consequently served to preserve the practice. In Spain bullfighting is a cultural even that is unique to this part of the world. It has gained a cult like following and has also been used as a tourist attraction. In Brazil, street carnival where people showcase there cultural dances such as samba have also become an eye catching event that is widely accepted all over the world. Similarly events could be organized regularly to showcase the NT diverse cultures. The Northern Territory should also explore the use of cultural ambassadors in other parts of Australia and the world in order to advertise the culture and to promote cultural tourism. Conclusion While plans are underway to confer full powers of statehood in the Northern Territory, the territorial government must increase ensure sustainable development in all areas of development. It is the responsibility of the Northern Territory government to promote understanding, acceptance interest and most of all harmonious existence among people of different cultural affiliations. The goal should be for the entire population to appreciate other cultures and to nurture rather than to kill diversity. Cultural diversity must never be sacrificed in the altar of economic development. References Alder C (1999) The Aboriginal art market: challenges to authenticity, on-line at: http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/resources/articles6.php, (Accessed: 3/2/05) Ames, R. Don Axford, Peter J. Usher, Ed Weick, George Wenzel, and John Merritt. (1989) Keeping on the land: A study of the feasibility of a comprehensive wildlife harvest support programme in the Northwest Territories. Ottawa ON: Canadian Arctic Resources Committee. Christie M 2000 ‘Greek Migration to Darwin, Australia, 1914-1921’ Journal of Northern Territory History, 71, pp 1 -14. Eckerman T. Dowd, M. Martin, L, Nixon R. Gray E. Chong, Binan Goonj (1992). Budging Cultures In Aboriginal Health, . Armidale NSW: Printery, University Of England.. 23-58. Hunter, E. (1993). Aboriginal Health and History. Power and prejudice in remote Australia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne.38 Strelein L (2000) Aboriginal land rights in Australia, Native Title Research Unit, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra. How to cite Northern Perspectives, Essay examples

Ethical Issues in ICT Information Communication

Question: Discuss about theEthica Issues in ICT for Information Communication. Answer: Introduction In the advent of information communication and technology, there are several ethical issues that are on the rise (Ludwig et al., 2016). Privacy and data security are the most crucial sectors where ethics needs to prevail. For instance, most of the businesses transactions like e-commerce and e-banking are done online, meaning that top level privacy is of great importance. The most affected areas affected by the lack of ethics include online transactions, education, hacking and many others (Van den Hoven, 2007). In most cases, it becomes impossible to avoid such issues but they can be prevented. Ethical issues in information communication and technology can fall on either individuals or the whole society (Vaccaro Madsen, 2009). In most cases, individuals are influenced by their peers especially when they are engaged in similar tasks. In the end, the resulting results can be good ethical issues (like the search of current information) or bad ethical issues (like plagiarism and pornogra phy). Scenario In Teter Company which deals with the interior design, an employee was discovered and reported to have been sharing information with unauthorized persons outside the company. Much of the information which was leaked was regarding some newly and unimplemented designs as well as a bit of operation at the company. The Facts Much of the information was shared with the competitors of the Teter design company who in turn took advantage and started bringing some designs into the market (Anderson Moore, 2006). Following complaints from the Teter marketing team, the top management decided to carry out a thorough inspection into the email accounts of each employee as well as a detailed SWOT analysis of the company. It was surprising to find out that the ICT employees had sent emails to the competitors regarding the latest designs by Teter Company. The Issues The facts in this scenario are that crucial management and operations information had been illegally shared out to Teter competitors and this company was now not competitive anymore. According to Hirschprung et al., (2016), the employees forgot that they had a role to play in ensuring that the information at Teter Company was supposed to be kept confidential. Further probing into what would have led to such unethical acts by the employees found that there was an aspect of the lack of satisfaction. Individual interviews with all the employees found out that the employees complained of a lack of recognition according to their efforts. In short, there was a lack of performance appraisal and the salaries had not been raised as previously promised by the management team. Who were the most affected? The most affected group, in this case, is the investors and shareholders because they were not able to get the value of their investments. Moreover, the general public came to understand some private issues at this company and it was really a shame to them. The investors threw blame to the Teter management for allowing such an offense to take place. Possible Options In order to prevent the possibility of such issues taking place in future, the management team needs to install surveillance systems in form of soft wares that can be monitoring the possibility of crucial information being shared out of the workplace (Chipidza et al., 2016). Time and again, the employees need to be inspected regularly so that in case such unethical doings have occurred, they can get to know in good time. The company should pay its employees based on the prevailing market standards as well as perform a performance appraisal which can motivate the staff to work harder (Esen et al., 2016). This is because the needs of an individual rise as days go by, indicating the need for a progressively increasing salary to the employees. Once the employees are satisfied, there is no likelihood of such malicious issues arising in the near future. Another possible step is for the company to provide individual electronic gadgets such as mobile phones and personal computers that need to be used at the workplace only and for business reasons. The best option Out of all these options, a preferable one would be to ensure that the employees are satisfied by paying them a good salary and appraising them for their outstanding efforts (Rasheed et al., 2016). Why is it the best option? This will motivate the respective employees to work more and better for the betterment of the organization. All the activities between the management team and the employees in a workplace should not in any way bring down negative effects to the investors, shareholders as well as the stakeholders. Finally, the employees need to be made aware of the norms as well as the ethical expectations in their workplace so as to observe the highest levels of honesty and integrity. Conclusion In most cases, people like using shortcuts when engaging in issues of information communication and technology. For instance, when one wants to download music or a useful software and they are required to pay for them, they are likely to use shortcuts to get that content. In the end, the hackers may use this illegal content to hack into the personal systems of computer users leading to loss of data. Therefore the final choice on how to use web content lies solely on the computer user. References Anderson, R., Moore, T. (2006). The economics of information security. Science, 314(5799), 610-613. Chipidza, W., Leidner, D., Burleson, D. (2016). Why Companies Change Privacy Policies: A Principal-Agent Perspective. In 2016 49th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) (pp. 4849-4858). Esen, H., Hatipo?lu, T., Boyac?, A. ?. (2016). A Fuzzy Approach for Performance Appraisal: The Evaluation of a Purchasing Specialist. In Computational Intelligence (pp. 235-250). Springer International Publishing. Hirschprung, R., Toch, E., Bolton, F., Maimon, O. (2016). A methodology for estimating the value of privacy in information disclosure systems. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 443-453. Ludwig, T., Reuter, C., Pipek, V. (2016). From Publics to Communities: Researching the Path of Shared Issues Through ICT. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 25(2-3), 193-225. Rasheed, M. I., Humayon, A. A., Awan, U., Ahmed, A. U. D. (2016). Factors affecting teachers motivation: An HRM challenge for public sector higher educational institutions of Pakistan (HEIs). International Journal of Educational Management, 30(1), 101-114. Vaccaro, A., Madsen, P. (2009). Corporate dynamic transparency: the new ICT-driven ethics?. Ethics and Information Technology, 11(2), 113-122. Van den Hoven, J. (2007). ICT and value sensitive design. In The information society: Innovation, legitimacy, ethics and democracy in honor of Professor Jacques Berleur SJ, 67-72.

Mcgregors Theories X and Y Essay Example

Mcgregors Theories X and Y Essay Compare McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y style of leadership and consider the types of organizations in which each style of leadership might be most appropriate. Douglas McGregor devised his concept of Theory X and Theory Y in the USA in the 1950’s using a survey of managers, which he then proposed in his book, ‘The Human Side of Enterprise’ in the 1960’s. Theory X states that a manager distrusts his subordinates, believes they don’t enjoy work and therefore must be controlled. Theory Y, on the other hand, speculates that a manager believes their employees enjoy work and wish to contribute, the manager is therefore more likely to include them in the decision making process and employ a more democratic style of leadership (Marcousse 2003). The two theories are not opposite ends of one spectrum, but rather two separate lines of continuum that describes the attitude and perception a manager has of their employees. The type of motivation that the employees receive from their manager is down to their management style. These Theories match up with Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’. McGregor makes the point that the way in which a manager runs and controls his team has massive impacts on the happiness in employees, relating to esteem and self actualisation. These are two factors of motivation mentioned by Maslow in his theory. In comparing these two theories, X and Y, we must take into account different factors that may affect the two ideas and how they may do so in different scenarios or places of work. We will write a custom essay sample on Mcgregors Theories X and Y specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Mcgregors Theories X and Y specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Mcgregors Theories X and Y specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The general idea is that Theory Y is the path of the â€Å"enlightened manager† (Chapman 1995) who runs a democratic form of leadership, and that it receives better results than theory X, whose manager employs more of an autocratic dictatorship. However this cannot always be believed. In different cases a manager may do better in his work to tell employees the best and most effective way to complete a task, knowing through experience. FW Taylor (1856-1917) believed in efficiency and complete control of a task provided to the manager. This idea related to such methods as the assembly line, a process broken down into simple tasks and completed individually by a group of workers along a line. Employed by such companies as Ford in the early 1900’s, in producing cars, this method gave great results, however keeping workers motivated was difficult, part of Taylor’s method was to â€Å"devise a pay scheme to reward those who complete or beat tough output targets, but penalize those who cannot, or will not, achieve the productivity Taylor believed was possible. (pg 218) For the manager, Theory X is a self – fulfilling method, the workers are likely to develop a lack in interest in their work and do it solely for the wage (Marcousse 2003). There are two scenarios in which Theory X can escape a degree of criticism for producing a lack of motivation from its workers(Marcousse 2003). The part time worker has partially already given in to the idea that they will not be receiving much independence and del egation of responsibility. This is due to the amount of time they have committed to their work. For example, a part time security guard might be asked to stand guard on a gate for an hour every morning to let personnel through, however once they have completed this task they are unlikely to achieve much more than changing the channel on their TV. The job simply requires a pair of eyes at one point in the morning, and the rest of the time they are simply on call. There is no enjoyment or form of learning with this job; the part time worker is simply there to take home some money at the end of the month, satisfying his basic needs for financial security, a mutual understanding between employer and employee. A large majority of the time there is little for the security guard to watch over. When something does arise that requires more attention, someone of higher authority is only a phone call away. In this, theory X is the logical management style, as to use theory Y would mean a greater chance of mistakes being made by someone who doesn’t have the same experience and qualifications as the elected official. The other scenario is in a moment of chaos (Marcousse 2003). At this point, due to the limited time scale in such moments, someone needs to take full control and make quick decisive decisions. Such a case is easily understood when put into the confines of an army unit under fire. Someone must give direct orders to keep the enemy under pressure and move their men to safety, or face either death or capture. Theory Y would consume too much time to listen to all possible ideas and make a decision, with young men who have been trained to take orders rather than come up with them. Efficiency is the key in this scenario, Taylor would be completely right in giving total control to a senior soldier to try and ensure the safety of his soldiers. Encouraging an employee to work for a great amount of time during the week or without the threat of danger

Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrandâ€Discussion Questions

'Unbroken' by Laura Hillenbrand- Discussion Questions   Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand is the true story of Louis Zamparini, who was an Olympic runner that survived for more than a month on a raft in the Pacific Ocean after crashing his plane during World War II. He was then taken as a Prisoner of War by the Japanese. Hillenbrand tells his story in parts, and these book club questions are also divided by parts of the book so that groups or individuals can discuss the story over time or focus on the areas they want to discuss more deeply. Spoiler Warning: These questions contain details about the end of Unbroken. Finish each section before reading the questions for that part. Part I Were you interested in Part I, which was mostly about Louis childhood and running career?How do you think his childhood and Olympic training helped him survive what would come later? Part II Were you surprised by how many servicemen died in flight training or in planes that went down outside of combat?Superman received 594 holes in the battle over Nauru. What did you think of the descriptions of this air battle? Were you surprised by their ability to survive despite being hit so many times?Did you learn anything new about the Pacific theater during World War II through this part of the book? Part III How do you think Louie survived the crash?What were details of the mens survival on the raft most interesting to you? How they found and saved water or food? The ways they kept up their mental acuity? The lack of provisions in the life raft?What role did emotional and mental state play in Phil and Louies survival? How did they keep their minds sharp? Why was this important?Were you surprised by how ferocious the sharks  were?Louie had several religious experiences on the raft that led to a new belief in God: surviving the gunning by the Japanese bomber, the tranquil day at sea, the provision of rainwater and seeing singing in the clouds. What do you make of these experiences? How were they important to his life story? Part IV Were you aware of how severely the Japanese treated Prisoners of War during World War II? Were you surprised to learn how much worse it was for men captured in the Pacific war than for those captured by Nazis?When Louie is interviewed just after his release, he says If I knew I had to go through those experiences again, Id kill myself (321). As they were going through it, how do you think Louie and Phil survived the starvation and brutality they faced as prisoners?What were the ways the Japanese tried to break the mens spirits? Why does the author focus on how this was worse in many ways than the physical cruelty? What do you think was the hardest thing the men had to endure?Later in the narrative, we learn that the Bird and many of the other soldiers were pardoned? What do you think of this decision?How do you think the men escaped the Kill All order?Why do you think Louies family never gave up hope that he was alive? Part V Epilogue In many ways, Louies unraveling is not surprising considering all he endured. After attending the Billy Graham crusade, however, he never experienced another vision of the Bird, he saved his marriage and he was able to move on with his life. Why do you think this is? What roles did forgiveness and gratitude play in his ability to move on? How did he see God at work throughout his whole experience despite the unimaginable suffering he experienced?From the moment of their rescue through the present day publishing of this book and the movie adaptation, Louie Zamparini has received significant media attention whereas Allen Phillips was treated as a trivial footnote in what was celebrated as Louies story (385). Why do you think that was?Louie continued to have adventures well into old age? What parts of his post-war story were most notable to you?Rate Unbroken on a scale of 1 to 5. Details of the book: Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand was published in November 2010.Publisher: Random House496 PagesThe movie adaptation of Unbroken was released in December 2014.

Avon Calls on Foreign Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Avon Calls on Foreign Markets - Essay Example The brand name has also been changed according to needs, e.g. France. The logo appears on the Avon product. It uses celebrity in order to sell its products. Avon is for women and their needs. Foreign operation Avon was formed on 1886 and has changed its marketing strategy frequently. It did so in order to maintain its growth in the market (Alanfaya, 2006, p.1). Avon depends hugely on foreign markets .The reason was that since US market is full of retailers of beauty product there is no untapped market left where Avon can capture and increase its market share. Thus Avon decided to operate on less competitive market. The domestic market of Avon depends on the US market. The market comprises of less than 5% of the world’s population. Socio and demographic changes Avon showed a declining trend in the US market in the 1990’s. The percentage of people using make up went down drastically from 92% to 88%. The decline affected the age group between 18 to 24 years of people. They are the people who would spend money on trying new products. Yet market share dropped by 4% in 1996. One of the main reasons in the decline of demographic is the changing fashion (Dortch, 1997, p.1). Candace Corlett remarked that the youths like to look more natural. The growth in the cosmetic market is projected to grow for all age groups. From the above data, it can be analyzed that the US market is now growing. But Avon being a cosmetic organization, it is mostly preferred by women of all age group. The ratio of women is at a higher rate than males. This would prove to be beneficial for Avon as it’s mainly caters to women. The age group of 15 to 65 years is also dominated by women. Therefore this change could affect Avon in a positive way and generate more sales in US (CIA, 2011). When it comes to socio economic changes, Avon has established itself as a big brand. Avon categories itself as a global brand and caters to millions of women worldwide. Out of every 5women 2 wom en uses Avon product. Thus the socioeconomic changes would affect the business of Avon. The better economic rate of the people more business it would be able to generate. Global Recession The recession of 2008 did not affect much on the operation of Avon. But however if a recession hits again, the economy would experience a fall in real GDP which would lead to less spending of income. But Avon deals in cosmetic products and this industry is growing (Eucck, 2011). Customers demand more for a quality product and Avon is a brand which satisfies their needs. Avon’s strength lies on its direct sales. It provides recession proof employment. Thus a global recession would not affect the operation of Avon. Competitive Advantage Avon competitive advantage is that it brings products to its customers through direct sales. When the china market banned direct sales, Avon sold its product through small shops and malls (Parker, 2005, p.256). Avon has come up with an advantage business model, during the period of unemployment and recession. It provides economic advantage for most women in the world. Avon gives a better customer service than other companies. It provides the best direct sales, thus it would not be easy for its competitors to overcome such a difference and overtake Avon. It has got a wider geographic coverage. Avon is present globally; it is at a position where it can expand even more, which is also not possible for any of its competitors the product line is much more attractive than its

Internal analysis on Toll Singapore Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Internal analysis on Toll Singapore - Case Study Example Supply chain management (SCM) is a developed discipline viewed as the management of a system of interlinked businesses working together in the core goals of providing essential services and products to target clientele or markets within the service provision base and precincts of the participating business entities. Various scholars have had their contributions on the concepts of SCM. There are some dissonances and concurrences when it comes to defining what SCM really. Perhaps one of the lucid definitions is offered by Harland (1996) who views SCM as a form of management that covers all transportation and storage of raw material, refined goods, and inventory in process from points of departure or origin up to the points of need (consumption). The track of transported goods from the point of origin up to the point of consumption constitutes what has been termed as the supply chain in business management and logistics science. Further perspectives on SCM stem from the view of the discipline as pertaining to the entirety of the aspects planning and overseeing of all activities entailed in procuring, conversion and management of all the logistical activity. Also crucial to this view is the inclusion of aspects coordination and alliance within the network players which may be the suppliers, the middlemen and even third party services renders as well as clients. Contemporary SCM is ... ion of aspects coordination and alliance within the network players which may be the suppliers, the middlemen and even third party services renders as well as clients. The core of SCM holds the integration of services and products supply as well as demand regulation in the SCM networks. Toll Singapore and Contemporary Supply Chain Management Contemporary SCM is undergoing significant transformation and modification under the influence of various sweeping phenomena in the forms of globalisation and technological leaps. Scholars around the discipline are factoring in the importance of various dynamics that have been largely less considered in earlier conceptualisations on SCM. The SCM discipline has had remarkable contributions from the works of Coyle, Langley and Gibson among others. Although the scholars have brought the supply chain element to the fore of the contemporary concepts on SCM, the scholars have underscored the role that information technology is playing and will continue to play in contemporary and future SCM domains. Coyle, Langley, Gibson, Novack, Bardi (2008), contend that, "A supply chain perspective germane for appropriate deciphering and application of the feasible SCM tenets will tap in the essence and merits of information technology as well as the rate of change and a closer recognition of logistics with all its associative dimensions". Toll group strength lies in the integration of operational expertise and assets in strategic thrust aimed at championing supply chain effectiveness in providing optimum SCM services to the target clientele pool. The Toll group Model The Toll group model can be explored in tandem with Michael Porter Value Chain conceptual framework. The value Chain framework of Michael Porter is an ensemble of useful conceptual

Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Questions - Assignment Example It has also made researchers lazy to go to the field and get first-hand research results. The audience accessing education has drastically increased hence much knowledge and skills are being acquired. On the other hand, false information is also found on the internet hence may be misleading to people who are learning. It has been easy for teachers to use the internet to elaborate their point in class and motivate their students. I second the statement to focus technology on e-learning delivery methods in public school districts. E learning is one of the flexible ways for students to participate in learning. In addition, it reduces congestion in schools and the need for the teacher to concentrate too much on the subject matter. With e learning, it is possible to have ready notes right in seconds and attend to assignments and researches. E learning holds the importance of educational opportunities across the globe for vast audiences of learners. Most students in higher learning institutions are proficient in computer uses and skilled at internet navigation. It is a method of acquiring knowledge whose performance is influenced by various factors such as student’s perception regarding ability to do tasks ad achieve goals, motivation to explore, and knowledge desire. Internet has been a source of motivation to learners since it is flexible, diverse and broad (Chang et. al, 2014). The positive aspects of these effects is that learning is interesting and learners are not pushed to engage in learning activities but on the other hand it has brought so much laziness amongst the students and reliance on information that is not true. Constructivism is a significant dominant pedagogy that applies in the e-learning process. It encourages students to build their own knowledge base regarding individual experience. It is considered the ideal aspect of e learning.

The Education System In Palestine

The Education System In Palestine Developing education in Palestine is a unique experience, rich and full of challenges and obstacles. First, it is unique due to the fact that it is one of the few countries where the Ministry of Education was established from scratch. Rich because of the enthusiasm and inspiration of Palestinians to learn. It is a challenge because Palestine is not yet a state and is facing a daily conflict with the Israeli occupation (UNESCO, 2002). Since the beginning of the Aqsa Intifada in 2000 and until now, the suffering of the Palestinian education increased like other vital sectors in Palestine as a result of the ongoing and repeated Israeli aggression. In particular, the aggression affects the lives of Palestinian children, their lives, future and school. Hundreds of students were killed, arrested and injured by the occupation army, which demolished many schools and some were transformed to military barracks. Not only has the Israeli occupation authorities stopped to this limit, but they est ablished the Apartheid Wall, which increased the suffering of the educational family and prevented the access of teachers and students to school safely; thus, this forced them to travel long distances or wait for the Israelis to allow them to cross the gates that are set up on the wall (MOEHE, 2009). Background: As a result of the 1948 Mandate and the banishing of a lot of people from their houses, Palestinians sought for recompense in education in order to protect a satisfactory level of living (Fasheh, 1990; Hallij, 1980). As far as the Israeli Occupation inflated, Palestinians considered education as a mean to keep them away from the obliteration and the Israelis confiscation, and the possibility of being a weapon to contend with (Tahir, 1985; Hallij, 1980). Throughout the period between 1967 and 1994, the Israeli government was in charge for the education sector in the West Bank and Gaza. After the Palestinian Authority was established in 1994, enrolment of students into all schools reached over a million from 650,000. However, the Ministry of Education suffered in creating methods for planning, synchronization and budgeting whilst handling the situation with the students growth and the continual crisis of the Israeli occupation (Nicolai, 2007, p. 1). After the Oslo I Accord in 1994, the Palestinian Authority Ministry of Education was founded. According to the West Bank report of the Educational Sector Analysis published in 2006, in September 2000, it was the first time when the Palestinian national curriculum was launched in the Palestinian schools and particularly in the first till the sixth grades for which this curriculum replaced the Jordanian and Egyptian curricula used since the Israeli occupation in the West Bank and Gaza in 1967. Moreover, this curriculum created an advantage for Palestine as being the first Arabic country that teaches the English language in the first grade, as well as initiated and taught Information Technology as an obligatory material from the fifth till the twelve grade. Additionally, schools had elective subjects such as home economics, health and environment from the seventh grade till the tenth grade, and economics and management in the eleventh and twelve grades (Passia, 2008, p. 356). The education system endured from striking damages through that period; schools and universities were closed for a long time and even some universities closures extended to about four years, where Israelis obliged a big number of teachers to leave their jobs. Moreover, it was prohibited to reveal anything about the Palestinian history, culture, geography and inheritance neither in class nor in the situation, for which the Jordanian textbook were in the West Bank and the Egyptian textbooks were in Gaza at that time (Nicolai, 2007, p. 1). According to the World Bank report (2006a, p. 44), a total of 266 schools and 7,350 classrooms were built between 1995 and 2005. The MOEHE was directly accountable for the building of 118 new schools and 2,675 educational classrooms in order to decrease the schools double shifts. According to the PCBS, 41% of classes had 30 students or less in 2004/2005 and only 18% of classes had more than 40 students (ibid: p. 51). According to the MOEHE (2007/2008), the survey results indicated that there are 1,182,246 male and female students studying in kindergartens and schools including 710,287 students in the West Bank and 471,959 students in Gaza Strip; 592,389 males and 589,857 females. Moreover, there are 766,730 students in government schools, 253,116 students in UNRWA schools, 78,111 students in private schools and 84,289 children in kindergarten. There has been an obvious increase in the number of schools since the years 1994 and 2007. The total number of schools increased from 1,469 (1,080 governmental schools, 254 UNRWA, and 135 private) to 2,337 schools (1,775 governmental schools, 286 UNRWA, and 276 private) in the West Bank and Gaza during 1994/1995 and 2006/2007. The number of sections also increased during the same period. In 2007, the class sections in the Palestinian schools reached 31,963 (34% student rate per each section), 22,833 in Governmental schools (33.3% students), 6,188 in UNRWA s chools (40.9% students), and 2,942 in private schools (24.6% students) (MOEHE, 2007, p. 1). Due to the harsh and hard situation that the Palestinian people have been facing until recent years, yet, the drop out rate decreased since 1993/1994 (2.25%) until 2005/2006 (0.9%) in Palestinian schools, and 3.33% in governmental schools compared to 0.1% in governmental schools in the same years sequentially (ibid: p. 2). In 2000, while the MOEHE was attempting to endure the corrosion of the education system, the Aqsa Intifada began. This Intifada caused to increase the corrosion in the education system that the MOEHE was facing. Based on the World Bank report (2006a, p. 37), Palestinians are the most educated people in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) area with 91% adult literacy rate. According to the MOEHE, in year 2007/2008, only 1,867 out of 2,415 schools were operating with one shift and the remaining 548 schools were operating with two shifts, including 67 schools in the West Bank and 481 in Gaza Strip (Passia, 2008, p. 359). Education Structure in Palestine: The education cycle is divided into 12 phases, starting from the first grade to the twelfth grade; the pre-school education provides educational services for children from the age of four up to the age of five, which is not yet a mandatory phase in the Palestinian educational system (World Bank, 2006a, p. 6). The common education system is divided into two phases. Phase one, the basic education that is covering grades from one to ten and is divided into preparation phase from grade one to four, and empowerment phase from grade five to ten. The second phase is the secondary education, which is not obligatory, that covers grades from eleven to twelve. These grades are alienated to literature, scientific, and vocational education, which included industrial, agricultural, commercial, hotel and home economics. In the West Bank and Gaza, there are fifteen industrial schools, as there are only three of them governmental (ibid: p. 9). According to the World Bank Report (2006b, p. 53), in 2004/2005, the total number of students attending schools and pre-schools was about over a million, 60% in the West Bank, 70% in governmental schools, 24% in UNRWA schools, and 6% in the private sector. As for teachers employment, governmental schools employed 66% of teachers, UNRWA 18% and the private sector 18%. However, the private sector is not investing adequate education and mostly vocational training due to the high expenditures and the slow profits anticipated from these projects. On the other hand, the private sector invests in nurseries and kindergartens (Fronk, Huntington and Chadwick, 1999). Schools Enrolment in Palestine: West Bank and Gaza accomplished high enrollment rate compared to other developing countries in the MENA region. According to the MOEHE (2005), during the period of 2005/2006, there are 383,748 students in the preparation stage; including 195,618 male and 188,130 female that are registered in schools in Palestine. A total of 62% of students (238,500 students) registered in governmental schools, 29% (109,419 students) in UNRWA schools and 9% (35,829 students) in private schools. As for the empowerment stage, a total of 569,873 students are registered in schools; including 296,247 male and 283,626 female. A total of 70% students (Among them, 398,672 students) are in governmental schools, 25% (145,133 students) in UNRWA schools, and 5% (26,068 students) private schools. Quality of Education in Palestine: According to Kellaghan and Greaney (2001, pp. 22-23), quality is the term relates to the adequacy or appropriateness of objects or processes for the purposes for which they were intended. Furthermore, quality implies a scale, and often implies standards. An object can be of good or poor quality, or it can meet, or fail to meet, a standard. There are many features of the system that would influence the educations quality; such as the schools building condition, teachers status, administration staff, teacher training, and the curriculum, for which any weakness in any of these indicator will affect the other indicators. Nonetheless, the outcome is the most important part, but what really matters is not the high enrollment rate, but the fact that if the students are obtaining the suitable knowledge, understanding and skills and are not dropping out of schools. To measure the quality of education in Palestine is not easy because of the major effect of the political situation on the education sector. Curfews, closures and all Israelis policies forced on the Palestinians affected the education sector mainly during Al-Aqsa intifada; students need to cope with all emergency situations, as well as for the teachers and schools administrators. Those aspects demoralize the educational quality. According to the MOEHE, about 43 schools were occupied and turned into Israeli military bases since the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa intifada (Nicolai, 2007, p. 2). According to the World Bank report (2006a, p. 4), developing countries regularly reach to a serious point after the attainment of high schools enrolment; but had to shift their concerns to the educational quality that might have been affected by the fast extension. The report also reconfirmed that the MOEHE has to shift their focus more on monitoring, evaluation and investing in human resources such as training teachers instead of their focus on construction and the provision of textbooks. Current Educational Situation in Palestine: Based on UNICEF (2010) statistics, there are 1,141,828 students in 2,611 schools from the first till the twelfth grade; 1,955 governmental schools, 325 UNRWA schools and 308 private sectors. Compared to the details demonstrated before, there is a clear change in number of students. According to the MOEHE, in governmental schools, there are 70% attendance, 22% in UNRWA and 8% in private sectors. Since the last elections in 2006, Gaza has been under siege and the needed construction material has been prevented to enter Gaza, which caused a problem of the increasing number of students leading to increasing the double shifts in schools. Double shifts reached 82% in governmental schools, 90% in UNRWA schools which lead schools to cut off the educational hours in order to observe the large numbers of students. In addition, the Ministry added that there is a high need to build new schools in the next five years in order to absorb the increasing number of students. Thus, its recommendation w as to build at least 100 UNRWA schools and 105 governmental schools. Nonetheless, obstacles hindering the movements of students to their schools havent got easier; they still suffer from long distances and are obliged to walk as high as 25 km to reach their schools in addition to paying a lot of money on a monthly basis (UNICEF, 2010, pp. 1-2) Conclusion: The problem of the education sector in Palestine is not easy; the complexity of the political situation is affecting this sector, the stages that the Palestinians went through and changing the responsible authority on the education sector since the British mandates left its finger prints on the current deterioration in the education sector. The problem of the schools crowdedness is not only due to the population growth but also due to the accumulated problems during the period 1967-1994; this freezing period in the education sector development affected deeply the quality of education in Palestine. Since the start of the MOEHE in 1994, the PA has only been trying to rebuild the education system through the expansion policy and constructing additional schools and classrooms. Yet the Israeli occupation is still hampering the education development through the closure policies. Previously and currently, the MOEHE is still facing many problems; such as, the continuous growth rate of students and the limited number of educational classrooms in addition to the unsuitable geographic distributions of schools site due to the Israelis imposed checkpoints, settlers road that increased throughout the second Intifada, and the segregation between Palestinian areas; as a result, students face the problem of crossing long distance to arrive at their schools. Moreover, governmental schools faced a main problem of the small sizes educational classrooms in the West Bank.

Imaging Techniques and Cognitive Function Essay examples -- Medicine

Neuroimaging is a multidiscipline science and experts from the field of psychology, statistics, physics and physiology all contribute to its further development (Poldrack et al., 2007). In the last 20 years the imaging techniques developed from single proton emission tomography (SPET) to positron emission tomography (PET) and finally to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Page, 2006). Their applications are numerous in experimental and cognitive psychology. However, at one level they can constitute another dependent variable (brain activity) as a response to an independent variable (stimulus manipulation) and at the other level, understanding the structure and processes of the brain can shed light on ‘normal’ cognitive functioning (Kaye, 2010). Therefore, this essay will argue that imaging techniques not only tell us about the brain structure but also try to explain its cognitive functions. Two non-invasive imaging techniques will be put forward, namely, electr oencephalogram (EEG) that measures electrical activity and gives excellent temporal resolution and fMRI that is based on changes in blood supply and provides excellent spatial resolution. The claim will be evaluated in the light of their basic assumptions, methodology and contribution to examining the brain function. Relevant evidence of studies with healthy adults will be provided. Finally, technologies that can only show the brain structure will be introduced. First, let us look at the electroencephalogram (EEG), which is based on recordings of electrical brain activity with millisecond temporal resolution and it provides â€Å"the most direct measure correlate of ongoing brain processing that can be obtained non-invasively (Johnsrude and Hauk, 2010, p. 28). The ba... ...12 from http://web.ebscohost.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=1b047404-ffff-413f-b018-a4213e391053%40sessionmgr115&vid=2&hid=110 Page, M. A. (2006). What can't functional neuroimaging tell the cognitive psychologist?. Cortex: A Journal Devoted To The Study Of The Nervous System And Behavior, 42(3), 428-443. Retrieved May 5, 2012 from http://www.sciencedirect.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S0010945208703757 Poldrack, R.A., Fletcher, P.C., Henson, R.N., Worsley, K.J., Brett, M. and Nichols, T.E. (2007). Guidelines for reporting an fMRI study. NeuroImage, 40 (2), 409-414. Retrieved May 5, 2012 from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811907011020 Whatson, T. (2006) Studying the brain: Techniques and technology. In Exploring the Brain (2nd ed.), 11-41, The Open University, Milton Keynes.